he debate over Islam and science covers a wide range of issues and extends from political leaders and experts to the public at large. Revealing the ever-present tensions between theory and practice, this debate takes place at two levels: practical and intellectual. At the practical level, the challenge is keeping up with the technological civilization of our age and bridging the gap between the advanced societies of the West and Muslim countries. From Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, the founder of the modern Turkish Republic, to the Islamic Republic of Iran and poor and rich Arab countries, empowering nations through science and technology is a top priority for all governments in the Muslim world, even though not all succeed in this goal. But it is not only governments and bureaucrats who think this way; the public at large is also fascinated by the power and magic of science and technology, which has penetrated all aspects of our lives. By will or by necessity, the vast majority of Muslims use science and technology in ways indistinguishable from the rest of the world.
While the practical application of science shadows everything else, the intellectual claims surrounding it raise serious questions. As a systematic way of studying nature, science operates within a framework of philosophical assumptions that overlap with theology and philosophy. Religious, cosmological, and metaphysical ideas provide a context of justification for the scientific study of the order of nature. These ideas and presuppositions may not always be explicitly articulated, but they underlie the conceptual foundations of all scientific traditions from the classical to the modern period. Contrary to the claims of positivists and scientific purists, scientific inquiry is shaped by socio-historical circumstances and preferences. Long before the publication of Thomas Kuhn's The Structure of Scientific Revolutions in 1962 and the postmodernist critiques of science that followed it, a number of studies—including Edmund Burtt's The Foundations of Modern Physical Sciences—had begun to probe into the tacit and explicit presuppositions of modern natural sciences. No matter how "objective" and precise it may claim to be, no science functions in a social or conceptual void.
The Qur'an, Islam's sacred text, contains an elaborate cosmology, makes regular references to natural phenomena, and implores its readers to ponder the world of nature as God's signs (ayat Allah, vestigia Dei). It is quite telling that a verse of the Qur'an is also called an ayah, i.e., sign. It deals with issues that are also studied by the natural sciences: creation, life, heavens and earth, animals, causality, order in nature, the argument from design, and the relation between the natural and human orders. The Qur'an presents natural phenomena as both the foundations of the physical order in which we live and the marvelous work of God as the great Artisan. By giving nature a religious meaning and a metaphysical function within the great chain of being, it offers a religious view of the universe which, in turn, lays the foundation for an Islamic philosophy of science. But this is not simply a religious philosophy superimposed upon a material entity. Rather, it is an integrated and holistic notion of the universe in which man and nature are placed as complements to each other.
Islamic Worldview and Modern Science
The notion of worldview is where Islam's holistic view of the universe runs into conflict with the secular, materialistic, and reductionist notions of the natural world. The latter is not science in any proper sense of the term but what some have called "scientism," an ideological construction of science as an alternative worldview. Scientism seeks to supplant the religious view of the universe and reduce religion to ethics without a claim over the nature of reality. This explains in part why modern atheism makes frequent use of scientism to substantiate its claims against religious faith. The debate as to whether Islam and science can be reconciled is not so much about science as it is about the unsubstantiated claims of scientism and its dubious philosophical arguments.
The secularization of the world-picture has been one of the most important outcomes of the scientific revolution. The scientistic worldview that has emerged out of this process has reduced nature to dead matter and divested the natural world of any intrinsic qualities. It has rejected the creationist account of traditional religions and purged all teleology from scientific nomenclature. The Darwinian theory of evolution, for instance, has come to symbolize the epic battle between religion and science in the West and has caused considerable consternation in the Muslim world, since the majority of Muslims maintain the creation story as the explanation of life on earth.
It is therefore not easy to reconcile the philosophical assumptions of modern scientism with the religious view of the universe espoused by the Qur'an and the Islamic intellectual tradition. These two perspectives represent not just two separate domains, i.e., religion and scientism, but rather different ways of looking at reality and the universe, with radically different and often opposing premises. The world-picture that emerges out of these approaches has far-reaching consequences for the theory and practice of science in any civilization. While the advocates of modern science and technology in the Muslim world emphasize the practical applications of science and consider them essential for the advancement of Muslim societies in the twenty-first century, their critics point to the philosophical and ideological underpinnings of scientism and offer an alternative philosophy of science.
Scientism on the Attack
Scientism's frontal attack on Islam came from Ernest Renan at a lecture at the Sorbonne in 1883. A famous historian of religion and devoted positivist of his time, Renan argued that Islam was inherently irrational, militantly intolerant, and essentially incapable of producing science and philosophy. Lacking the "scientific outlook" that made the scientific revolution possible, Islam prevented the development of science and the kind of "free thinking" that is independent of all metaphysical and religious notions. When there was progress, it was despite Islam's religious dogmas, not because of them. Renan's quasi-racist attack was not an invitation for a conversation on religion and science or on Islam and Europe, but a verdict that was to generate a flurry of responses from several generations of Muslim scholars, scientists, and activists. Published in book form as L'Islam et la science, Renan's lecture was a triumphalist announcement of the final victory of Eurocentrism and its new scientistic worldview over the Muslim world and, in fact, the rest of the globe.
Spearheaded by Jamal al-Din Afghani in Persia and Namik Kemal in the Ottoman Empire, Muslim men of letters took it upon themselves to respond to what they considered to be the distortion of modern science at the hands of some anti-religious philosophers, producing a sizable discourse on modern science and how it can be reconciled with Islamic faith. Afghani epitomized the zeitgeist of his generation when he based his historical apology against Renan on the premise that there could be no clash between religion and science, be it traditional or modern, and that modern Western science was nothing other than the original true Islamic science shipped back, via the Renaissance and the Enlightenment, to the Islamic world. By the same token, there is nothing essentially wrong with modern science, and it is the reductionist and exclusivist representation of science that pits scientific facts against religious faith. Afghani also believed that the Muslim lands that were once the trailblazer of scientific advancements in the world would one day recover from their current eclipse and catch up with Europe (see also Lecture on Teaching and Learning and Answer to Renan).
The prominent Ottoman intellectual Namik Kemal joined Afghani with a rebuttal of his own in his Renan Mudafanamesi (A rebuttal of Renan), focusing this time on the scientific achievements of the Arabs (part of Renan's racism was directed at Muslim Arabs). Kemal was more nuanced in his assessment of the relations between religion and science and hinted that the Islamic intellectual tradition had produced a healthy synthesis of religious faith, philosophical investigation, and scientific discovery. Acutely aware of the daunting challenges of modern scientism but not intimidated by it, he produced an interpretation of Islam and science that has sought to strike a balance between tradition and modernity—a balance that has been attempted by numerous scholars and intellectuals since then.
Religion, Philosophy, and Science
The search for a balanced synthesis of religion, philosophy, and science remains at the center of the Islam-science debate. Philosophy is a bridge, a mediator between religious truths and scientific facts, because it provides a conceptual framework in which the religious view of the universe is related to the scientific description of physical reality. Science cannot produce a "worldview" because, as Huston Smith argues in his Beyond the Postmodern Mind, "'world' implies whole and science deals with part, an identifiable part of the whole that can be shown to be part only." Scientific knowledge is a special kind of knowledge, precise in its details but extremely restricted in its scope. The boundaries of science are drawn by itself: it is an enterprise limited to the quantitative study of the physical world, for which specific methods are needed. In this undertaking, natural sciences excel and show great prowess. Science becomes scientism and turns into poor philosophy when these boundaries are obliterated.
The premodern Muslim scientists applied this principle to their hermeneutics of science and interpreted scientific data within the worldview and cosmological outlook of Islam. A case in point is the notion of God as the "clock-maker" and why it has not caused a religious outrage among Muslims. The mechanization of the cosmos is a hallmark of the modern scientific worldview and underlies much of the new atheism today, because it dispenses with the idea of a creator and a divine agent in the universe. The explanation of the order and balance of the universe through the metaphor of a well-functioning system, however, is not an exclusively modern phenomenon. The Qur'anic concept of mizan, balance, and the philosophical notion of nizam, order, has been utilized to prove God's absolute perfection and artisanship. In fact, one of the classical proofs for the existence of God is the perfection of God's creation: the order, balance, proportionality, beauty, and harmony that we see in the universe. One can study the universe in its physical aspects and marvel at its mathematical precision without turning it into self-sustaining matter and a self-regulating entity separated from God. This is where classical Muslim theology, or kalam, joined the work of Muslim cosmologists and physicists and produced a scientifically sound and philosophically integrated view of the natural world.
The controversies surrounding faith and reason in Islam were hardly between religion and science or religious faith and rational argumentation. Many scholars of religion were also scientists, philosophers, historians, and philologists, and vice versa. When the question of the compatibility of faith and reason was raised, it was raised not by secular philosophers, as in post-medieval Europe, but by religious authorities who did not feel comfortable with particular theories and interpretations of Muslim philosophers. Most of their objections pertained to the philosophical and cosmological system developed by the Muslim Peripatetics on the basis of Aristotle's core ideas. Science per se was hardly a matter of controversy. Al-Ghazali's attack on the Muslim Aristotelians in his Tahafut al-falasifah is a case in point.
Overcoming the Boundaries
Ghazali's criticism of Peripatetic metaphysics and cosmology has been interpreted as the death knell of philosophy and science in Islam—a point still raised in the Islam-science debate today. This is a simplistic reading of the intellectual tradition of Islam and fails to do justice to the long and complex history of science in the Muslim world. Philosophical and scientific studies continued after al-Ghazali and reached a climax in terms of accumulated scientific knowledge and advanced techniques in Andalusia, the Ottoman world, and the subcontinent of India.
More importantly, al-Ghazali makes it clear in his autobiography al-Munqidh min al-dalal that his primary objections were directed not at philosophy (falsafah) as such but at the philosophers (falasifah) and their metaphysics in particular. In a Kantian move, al-Ghazali's concern was to draw the limits of speculative (and Aristotelian) philosophy vis-á-vis Islamic metaphysics. Al-Ghazali held that the Aristotelian system, which the Muslim Peripatetics endorsed, was not adequate for an Islamic metaphysics of God and the creation of the universe because it reduced God to an Unmoved Mover, which hardly did justice to God's absolute power, infinity, mercy, and love.
Diverse Views of Science in the Muslim World
With this background in mind, three main positions can be identified in the present religion-science discourse in the Muslim world. The first is that science is a cross-cultural enterprise and that it does not take an "Islamic" or "Western" form. In simple terms, science studies the world of nature and is a tool to make people's lives better. It is not a philosophical project and does not need religious justification. What the classical Islamic civilization had in the past was a scientific tradition carried out in Muslim lands, which was then transmitted to the West, preparing the ground for the rise of modern science. Thus the Muslim world should import science and technology to solve its economic and social problems without fearing their religious or ethical implications.
This view has been generally defended by such figures as Jamal al-Din Afghani and Sayyid Ahmad Khan in the nineteenth century and is held by scores of Muslim scientists and engineers today. One of its most ardent defenders was Ataturk, who said in his usual crisp tone: "We shall take science and knowledge from wherever they may be, and put them in the mind of every member of the nation. For science and for knowledge, there are no restrictions and no conditions. For a nation that insists on preserving a host of traditions and beliefs that rest on no logical proof, progress is very difficult, perhaps even impossible." Today, governments in the Muslim world follow the same approach and seek to make the most of modern scientific and technological advancements. While many Muslim countries lag behind in scientific research and publication, they share the goal of transferring and owning science and technology to empower their military, economic, and societal development.
Science as Deciphering the Signs of God
In a pious religious context, a different version of this view has been produced to show the compatibility of the Qur'an and science. The proponents of this view, such as Farid Wajdi, Said Nursi, and the latter's follower Fethullah Gulen, both of whom have popularized the study of science among their followers, assign to the natural sciences the task of deciphering the signs of God in the universe. According to them, science reveals the divinely ordained codes built into the natural order and thus helps us marvel at God's creative act. The Qur'an describes the world of nature as a book to read under its guidance, and every sign in the cosmos points to God's power and generosity. This view of science as the decoder of the sacred language of the cosmos has appealed to generations of pious believers in the Christian and Muslim worlds. It has been deployed to show the unity of the three orders of reality: the divine who has created the universe, the natural world that bears to witness to God's creation, and the human order that is attached to both and thus occupies a unique position.
This view of science has also been used as a bulwark against the anti-religious claims of aggressive scientism and atheism. Those who hold a religious view of the universe reject scientism not only on philosophical but also on scientific grounds, and assert that scientism is not verified by the objective findings of natural sciences. The world of nature, when properly studied, reveals a remarkable structure of order, balance, and proportion, all of which point to a higher principle in the universe. God's "invisible hand" is seen most clearly in the cosmos, which humans must not only use for their practical, worldly needs but also understand in order to appreciate God's grace. Thus the sciences, which study nature, God's great work of art, can only enhance one's belief in God. The scientistic critics of religion misuse scientific theories and facts and create a pseudo-religion called scientism. Far from contradicting each other, Islam and science complement each other. Thus Farid Wajdi, one of the most prolific writers of modern Islam, states in his hefty work Islam in an Age of Science, published in Arabic in the middle of the last century, that "science in all ages supports and confirms Islam and Islam helps and backs its learning."
A more recent version of this view has been popularized by the work of Harun Yahya, the pen name of Adnan Oktar, a Turkish scholar and popularizer of Islam. Through numerous publications, videos, and Internet resources, Yahya has launched a major attack against Darwinism and evolutionary theory and defended monotheistic creationism as a scientifically proven doctrine. His work is also a typical example of what some have called "the scientific exegesis of the Qur'an."
"Scientific Exegesis"
The construction of science as a way of deciphering God's signs in the cosmos has led some Muslim scholars to interpret Qur'anic verses according to the findings of modern natural sciences. In turn, scientific discoveries have been interpreted to show their compatibility with religious belief. Some have gone even further and tried to prove not only that the Qur'an is compatible with scientific facts, but that it predicted new scientific discoveries fourteen centuries ago, and that this should be seen as a miracle of the Qur'an and demonstrate that it is the word of God. From the creation of the universe and the formation of clouds to the genesis of the fetus, Qur'anic verses as well as the sayings of the Prophet of Islam have been analyzed with a view toward explaining their scientific precision and truth.
Best exemplified by the French medical doctor Maurice Bucaille's The Bible, the Qur'an and Science, published in 1976, this approach has led to what is called "scientific exegesis" (al-tafsir al-ilmi, al-tafsir al-fanni) of the Qur'an. Its primary focus is to prove the miraculous nature of the Qur'an by using recent scientific discoveries. In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, this view has been largely accepted by various Muslim scholars including Muhammad Abduh, Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Iskandarani, Sayyid Abd al-Rahman al-Kawakibi, Muhammad Abdullah Draz, and Said Nursi. Today, there are numerous publications in various languages advocating a pious interpretation of modern natural sciences.
The pietistic interpretation of modern science in the name of Islamic compatibility fails to address the deep philosophical differences between the Islamic scientific tradition and the secular outlook of modern science. As William Chittick argues in his Science of the Cosmos, Science of the Soul: The Pertinence of Islamic Cosmology in the Modern World, it is misleading to think that the goals of the traditional natural sciences are the same as those of modern science. It is also wrong to assume that premodern science is different from modern science only in the advancement of techniques, methods, and the accumulation of scientific data. The qualitative differences in the overall outlook of classical and modern science are too obvious to ignore. As George Saliba discusses in his Islamic Science and the Making of the European Renaissance, the rise of the Islamic scientific tradition cannot be relegated to the Muslim encounter with the Greco-Hellenistic tradition and its appropriation by successive generations of Muslim scholars and scientists. A more complex set of circumstances were at work in the formation of the Islamic scientific heritage, and they were underlined by both philosophical considerations and practical necessities, which will be examined below.
Science as a Cultural Enterprise
The second view of science in the Muslim world, which we may call the "epistemic view," takes its cue from contemporary philosophy of science and focuses on the social and historical bases of scientific theories. Its proponents criticize modern Western science on epistemological grounds and make use of the postmodern critiques of natural sciences and their philosophical claims. The epistemic view of science considers the sciences of nature like any other human enterprise: historically grounded, socially bounded, culturally situated, and economically motivated.
Led by the work of T. Kuhn, P. Feyerabend, I. Lakatos, and others, the philosophy of science has gradually become a sociology of knowledge, unearthing the social circumstances, historical prejudices, and tacit assumptions that shape the outlook and practice of science at any given time in history. There is no such thing as '"pure science"' untouched by contexts of historical formation; sciences, no matter how objective or precise they may claim to be, cannot claim immunity. The natural sciences are both cultural products and intellectual constructs that seek to understand the natural world in certain specific ways. As a result, the exclusivist claims of modern science and scientism over other forms of knowledge, including religious, philosophical, and artistic knowledge, should be discarded and the validity of different types of knowledge should be recognized.
The epistemic and methodological critique of modern science and its exclusivist claims of epistemic dominance have been fully developed by a number of Muslim scholars and intellectuals, including Ismail Faruqi, Ziauddin Sardar, Zaki Kirmani, and M. Ahmad Anees. They have also attempted to give an Islamic content to the epistemic-philosophical architecture of natural sciences. The "Islamization of knowledge" project, developed by Ismail Faruqi and his followers at the International Institute of Islamic Thought (IIIT), aimed at creating a new epistemic foundation for social and natural sciences from an Islamic point of view, and adopted an interdisciplinary approach. But Faruqi, since he believed in the essential neutrality of natural sciences and thought they needed no special attention, turned to social sciences and initiated a program to '"Islamize"' the existing forms of knowledge and social disciplines as they have developed in the West in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.
Ziauddin Sardar and a number of closely associated scholars known as the "Ijmalis" and the "Aligarh School" have also addressed the issues of science and scientific knowledge from an Islamic point of view. They have adopted a largely historical-cultural approach to science and interpret it as "a basic problem-solving tool of any civilization." As Sardar argues in his Explorations in Islamic Science, the natural sciences, just like any other human enterprise, operate within a certain historical-cultural context. Their tacit philosophical assumptions and scientific programs are shaped by the socio-historical settings in which they emerge and function. As the defenders of "postmodern science" hold, all scientific data are subject to such historical readings and cannot be considered absolute truths outside their socio-cultural contexts. This does not lessen the significance and reliability of scientific discoveries. But it does limit the degree to which the natural sciences can claim universal objectivity and applicability.
The epistemic view of science has led a number of Muslim scholars, scientists, and intellectuals to produce a sizable literature on the development of methods of natural sciences according to Islamic principles in such diverse fields as physics, astronomy, and biology. Several Islamic universities in Pakistan and Malaysia have implemented these principles in their curricula and have taught natural and social sciences from an Islamic and multidisciplinary point of view. Although they have achieved some success, they have so far failed to produce an integrated and coherent body of knowledge in either social or natural sciences.
The culturalist-historical approach to science has been further developed in relation to the practice of science in the Muslim world. In his Islam, Science, and the Challenge of History, Ahmad Dallal, for instance, traces the history of scientific activity in classical Islamic civilization by analyzing the cultural forces that propelled Muslims to take up natural sciences as a primary field of study. Toby Huff's The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China, and the West provides a comparative study of the history of science in Chinese, Islamic and Western traditions and focuses on legal and institutional foundations. Huff explores why the scientific revolution did not happen in China or the Islamic world when in fact they had more advanced science than Europe until the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.
A Metaphysics of Science
In addition to the neutral and epistemic-cultural views of science, a third view of science has emerged with a more substantial critique of the secular-materialist outlook of modern natural sciences and the philosophical claims of scientism. Led chiefly by Seyyed Hossein Nasr and defended by Naquib al-Attas, Osman Bakar, Alparslan Açikgenç, Mahdi Golshani, and Muzaffar Iqbal, the proponents of this view aim to analyze and deconstruct the metaphysical and philosophical foundations of modern science and propose a view of science grounded in the sacred teachings of religion on nature and the cosmos. They agree with the epistemic view that every scientific activity is carried out within a certain framework of principles, ideas, and assumptions about the universe. But these are not simply methodological principles; they pertain to the very nature of scientific activity. Our basic premises about existence precede the scientific descriptions of the physical reality. Thus a proper of study of the relation between religion and science has to start with the delineation of these presiding ideas and assumptions.
The task of a proper philosophy of science is to clarify these ideas and principles as they apply to the scientific investigation of the physical world. "Islamic science" refers to the kind of science produced within a framework of reality as envisaged by the fundamental teachings of Islam about the universe. It is both a metaphysical and an ethical framework, a way of looking at physical reality as part of the great chain of being that encompasses all beings and regulates their relations. According to its defenders, the concept of Islamic science operates on the principle of a conceptual unity and a holistic view of reality whereby everything in the universe is related to everything else. The Qur'anic view of the cosmos undergirds the scientific study of the natural world not only at the level of methodology but also at the level of "fundamental metaphysics," providing a context of meaning for all philosophical investigations and scientific discoveries. As Nasr states in his Science and Civilization in Islam, "the aim of all the Islamic sciences . . . is to show the unity and interrelatedness of all that exists, so that, in contemplating the unity of the cosmos, man may be led to the unity of the Divine Principle, of which the unity of Nature is the image." Thus the doctrine of tawhid, divine unity, applies to theology as well as to science; by means of this concept, the hierarchical interconnectedness and the inherent order and intelligibility of things are unveiled.
As Muzaffar Iqbal discusses in his Islam and Science, the great achievements of Muslim scientists in classical Islamic civilization were made possible within such a framework of understanding and thus extended the Islamic Weltanschauung into the field of practical sciences and technology. While operating within the religious universe of Islam, natural sciences also responded to the practical needs of Muslim societies. These included a wide range of issues: finding the direction of the qibla; determining prayer times; devising complex tax systems; developing new surgical methods; examining and discovering different aspects of the human body; producing new drugs; applying mathematical models and geometrical patterns to architecture and plastic arts; producing complex colors and coloring techniques; researching light and its movements; advancing optical sciences for various uses; building sophisticated and efficient windmills and watermills; developing the science of cybernetics; inventing new devices for measurement; advancing map making; and so on.
History of Islamic Science
While scientists and technicians met these practical needs and advanced the material well-being of their societies, states and political leaders supported and generously funded scientific activities. In some cases, rival states competed with each other to attract the best scientists in the world, from the Byzantine lands to China. Most scientific projects in physics, astronomy, chemistry, optics, and medicine were funded through public funds but also through endowments, schools, libraries, and research centers. The famous Bayt al-Hikmah, for instance, became such a center in the ninth century and functioned as a model for other institutions in the centuries to come. It was not only a center for the translation of Greek philosophical and scientific works into Arabic. It was also a center for advanced learning, research, and study where Muslims and non-Muslims, Arabs and non-Arabs came together to pursue knowledge in the vast inventory of human learning that was available to them. It is still remembered today as a beacon of knowledge and as a memorable witness to the great achievements of Muslim scholars and scientists.
The contributions of Muslim scientists have been studied in various academic works, including those by Roshdi Rashed, N. Haq, E. Kennedy, and others. The Cambridge Journal of Arabic Sciences and Philosophy publishes scholarly articles on the history of science in the Muslim world. The journal Islam and Science, edited by Muzaffar Iqbal, engages the Islam-and-science debate through discussions on the theory and practice of science in an Islamic context.
Seyyed Hossein Nasr's Islamic Science: An Illustrated Study was the first major study of Islamic science with a view toward making it available to a general audience. Most recently, the major achievements of classical Islamic science have been presented in a major exhibition and study called 1001 Inventions: Muslim Heritage in Our World. The exhibition brings together some of the important discoveries made by Muslim scientists and discusses their contributions to general knowledge.
A museum of Islamic science and technology with a similar idea has opened in Istanbul, Turkey under the direction of Fuat Sezgin. Considered one of the most prolific historians of Islamic thought and science, Sezgin's works, published in several languages, cover the major areas of Islamic science and technology. His science museum provides an engaging access to the workings of various technical devices and machines developed by Muslim scientists.
The Islam-science debate has its critics as well. The critics reject the Islamic science literature as conceptually weak, historically ungrounded, and scientifically unproductive. For instance, Pervez Hoodbhoy and Taner Edis, while taking different approaches, insist on a clear-cut distinction between the fields of religion and science, and see attempts at reconciliation or synthesis as unsound. They generally take a bifurcationist position and propose that religion and science be treated as two independent domains of study.
Issues in Physical and Biological Sciences
Today, Muslim scholars and scientists face a series of conceptual and practical challenges in the field of science and technology. The findings and application of modern science to various fields of life pose challenges to world religions including Islam. Issues in bioethics, human cloning, genetic engineering, organ transplantation, and stem-cell research have generated varying responses by Muslim scholars and scientists. This is a new area of intense debate in which Muslim jurists, biologists, and physicians have all been consulted for answers. The Darwinian theory of evolution remains a highly contentious issue, with both defenders and opponents arguing from the Islamic sources. Osman Bakar's Critique of Evolutionary Theory: A Collection of Essays brings together a number of essays that consider Darwinian evolution both unscientific and un-Islamic.
A similar set of issues has emerged in the field of physical sciences and cosmological theories. Quantum mechanics has substantially changed our concept of matter, and its philosophical implications have been applied to issues of determinism, measurement, chance, and necessity. Modern cosmological theories, the big-bang theory of creation, the anthropic principle, the argument from design, and models of the expanding and oscillating universe have also produced a sizable literature and have once again blurred the lines between religion, philosophy, and science. A number of Muslim scientists have written about modern physics and cosmology from an Islamic point of view.
Summary
Muslim thinkers and scientists have produced different perspectives on Islam and science. Their diverse responses attest to the possibility of different conceptualizations and formulations within an Islamic framework. The practical and conceptual challenges of science and technology remain pressing for Muslim societies. The debate over how to develop a coherent Islamic framework for science and technology continues with important implications for biological and environmental issues in the Muslim world. As developing Muslim nations continue to struggle with issues of science and technology, the Islam-science debate is certain to gain further momentum.
Selected Bibliography
Açikgenç, Alparslan. Islamic Science: Towards a Definition. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: ISTAC, 1996.
al-Attas, S. M. Naquib. "Islam and the Philosophy of Science." In Prolegomena to the Metaphysics of Islam: An Exposition of the Fundamental Elements of the Worldview of Islam. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: ISTAC, 1995.
Bagir, Zaynal Abidin, ed. Science and Religion in a Post-colonial World. Adelaide, Australia: ATF Science and Theology, 2006.
Baharuddin, Azizan, ed. Science and Religion: An Islamic Perspective. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: Center for Civilizational Dialogue, 2006.
Baharuddin, A., F. M. Denny, and R. C. Foltz, eds. Islam and Ecology. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2003.
Bakar, Osman. Classification of Knowledge in Islam. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: Institute for Policy Studies, 1992.
Bakar, Osman. Critique of Evolutionary Theory: A Collection of Essays. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: Islamic Academy of Science and Nurin Enterprise, 1987.
Bakar, Osman. Tawhid and Science: Essays on the History and Philosophy of Islamic Science. 2nd ed. Shah Alam, Malaysia: Arah Publications, 2008.
Bucaille, Maurice. The Bible, the Qur'an and Science. New York: Islamic Book Service, 2001.
Chittick, William. Science of the Cosmos, Science of the Soul: The Pertinence of Islamic Cosmology in the Modern World. Oxford: Oneworld, 2007.
Dallal, Ahmad. Islam, Science, and the Challenge of History. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2010.
Dien, Mawil Izzi. The Environmental Dimensions of Islam. Cambridge, U.K.: Lutterworth Press, 2000.
Ebrahim, Abul Fadl Mohsin. Organ Transplantation, Euthanasia, Cloning and Animal Experimentation. Markfield, UK: The Islamic Foundation, 2001.
Edis, Taner. An Illusion of Harmony: Science and Religion in Islam. Amherst, Mass.: Prometheus Books, 2007.
Faruqi, Ismail, and Omar Naseef, eds. Social and Natural Sciences: The Islamic Perspective. Jeddah, Saudi Arabia: 1981.
Faruqi, Ismail R. Islamization of Knowledge: General Principles and Work Plan. Washington, D.C.: International Institute of Islamic Thought, 1982.
al-Ghazali. The Incoherence of the Philosophers (Tahafut al-Falasifah). Provo: Brigham University Press, 2002.
Golshani, Mahdi. "Creation in the Islamic Outlook and Modern Cosmology." www.cis-ca.org
Golshani, Mahdi. Issues in Islam and Science. Tehran: Institute for Humanities and Cultural Studies, 2004.
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al-Hassani, Salim. 1001 Inventions: Muslim Heritage in Our World. London: Foundation for Science, Technology and Civilization, 2011.
Hoodbhoy, Pervez. Islam and Science: Religious Orthodoxy and the Battle for Rationality. London: Zed Books, 1991.
Huff, Toby. The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China, and the West. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
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Ihsanoglu, Ekmeleddin, ed. Transfer of Modern Science and Technology to the Muslim World. Istanbul: IRCICA, 1992.
Iqbal, Muzaffar. Islam and Science. Aldershot, U.K.: Ashgate, 2002.
Kalin, Ibrahim. "Three Views of Science in the Islamic World." In God, Life and the Cosmos: Christian and Islamic Perspectives, edited by Ted Peters, Muzaffar Iqbal, and Syed Nomanul Haq, 43–75. Aldershot, U.K.: Ashgate, 2002.
Kennedy, E. S., et al. Studies in the Islamic Exact Sciences. Beirut: American University, 1983.
King, David. Astronomy in the Service of Islam. Aldershot, U.K.: Variorum, 1993.
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Nasr, Seyyed Hossein. An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1964.
Nasr, Seyyed Hossein. Islamic Science: An Illustrated Study. Kent, U.K.: World of Islam Festival Publishing Company, 1976.
Nasr, Seyyed Hossein. Religion and the Order of Nature. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996.
Nasr, Seyyed Hossein. Science and Civilization in Islam. Cambridge, U.K.: Islamic Texts Society, 1987.
Nasr, S. H., and William Chittick, eds. An Annotated Bibliography of Islamic Science. Tehran: Imperial Iranian Academy of Philosophy, 1975–78.
Rahman, Fazlur. Health and Medicine in the Islamic Tradition. New York: Crossroad, 1987.
Rashed, Roshdi, ed. Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science. London: Routledge, 1996.
Saliba, George. Islamic Science and the Making of the European Renaissance. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2007.
Sardar, Ziauddin. Explorations in Islamic Science. London: Mansell Publishing, 1989.
Smith, Huston. Beyond the Postmodern Mind. Wheaton, IL: Quest, 1989.
Stenberg, Leif. The Islamization of Science: Four Muslim Positions Developing an Islamic Modernity. Lund, Sweden: Lund Studies in History of Religions, 1996.
Turner, Howard. Science in Medieval Islam: An Illustrated Introduction. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1997.
Wajdi, Farid. Islam in an Age of Science .
Ziadat, Adel. Western Science in the Arab World: The Impact of Darwinism 1860–1930. London: Macmillan Press, 1986.
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Cosmology Marhaban Ya Ramadhan December 30, 2011 New Google SEO Bandung, Indonesia
Location: Roma, Italia
Description: Roma, Ibukota Italia, mempunyai sebuah masjid megah. Lokasi masjid yang didisain arsitek Italia Paulo Porthogesi, berdekatan dengan Kota Vatikan dan Sinagog Yahudi. Dengan hadirnya bangunan pusat peribadatan umat Islam itu, berarti telah mengokohkan Roma sebagai kota religius dan budaya bagi tiga agama besar: Kristen, Islam, dan Yahudi.
Source: http://www.republika.co.id/berita/8882.html
The Presidential Decree No. 28 Year 2011 that allows conditional underground mining in the protected forest areas was issued on 19th of May 2011.
The Presidential Decree will be followed up by first, the Principal Agreement by the Ministry of Forestry (up to 2 years and can be extended), and second, the Borrow and Use Permit by the Ministry of Forestry (up to 20 years and can be extended).
"The long awaited Presidential Decree issuance is truly great news to our zinc concession operated by our 80% owned subsidiary, PT Dairi Prima Minerals (“Dairi”), in North Sumatera. Our team is now in the process of submitting the formal request to ultimately obtain the Borrow and Use Permit to conduct the underground mining activities in the Dairi’s concession” said, Kenneth Farrell, the CEO of PT Bumi Resources Minerals Tbk.
Mr. Farrell further added,”The Presidential Decree which supports the conditional underground mining in the protected forest area is a huge improvement in the Indonesia’s mining industry. It will allow a lot of concession owners to monetize their mining reserves in the near future".
"This also means more added value royalties for the country (Indonesia). We remain optimistic that the Borrow and Use Permit for the underground mining in Dairi will be in place soon. This will lead to Dairi commencing its first production early in 2013 subject to the availability of such Permit and all other conditions being satisfied,” he further said. Marhaban Ya Ramadhan December 22, 2011 New Google SEO Bandung, Indonesia
The Presidential Decree will be followed up by first, the Principal Agreement by the Ministry of Forestry (up to 2 years and can be extended), and second, the Borrow and Use Permit by the Ministry of Forestry (up to 20 years and can be extended).
"The long awaited Presidential Decree issuance is truly great news to our zinc concession operated by our 80% owned subsidiary, PT Dairi Prima Minerals (“Dairi”), in North Sumatera. Our team is now in the process of submitting the formal request to ultimately obtain the Borrow and Use Permit to conduct the underground mining activities in the Dairi’s concession” said, Kenneth Farrell, the CEO of PT Bumi Resources Minerals Tbk.
Mr. Farrell further added,”The Presidential Decree which supports the conditional underground mining in the protected forest area is a huge improvement in the Indonesia’s mining industry. It will allow a lot of concession owners to monetize their mining reserves in the near future".
"This also means more added value royalties for the country (Indonesia). We remain optimistic that the Borrow and Use Permit for the underground mining in Dairi will be in place soon. This will lead to Dairi commencing its first production early in 2013 subject to the availability of such Permit and all other conditions being satisfied,” he further said. Marhaban Ya Ramadhan December 22, 2011 New Google SEO Bandung, Indonesia
Jonny Lingga holds a degree in Development Economics from North Sumatra University (USU) Medan. He was a member of PT. Kaltim Prima Coal's (KPC) first Graduate of Development Program in 1992. After two years in the Accounting Department of KPC, he moved to PT Freeport Indonesia (PTFI) in Papua where he worked for more than sixteen years in various management roles. He spent five year years as the Chief Operations Accountant, four years as the Senior Contracts Negotiator and seven years as the PTFI Government Relations Manager. He joined PT Dairi Prima Mineral in April 2011 as the CSR Manager.
A. Apa yang dimaksud dengan AMDAL
AMDAL merupakan kajian dampak besar dan penting terhadap lingkungan hidup, dibuat pada tahap perencanaan, dan digunakan untuk pengambilan keputusan. Hal-hal yang dikaji dalam proses AMDAL: aspek fisik-kimia, ekologi, sosial-ekonomi, sosial-budaya, dan kesehatan masyarakat sebagai pelengkap studi kelayakan suatu rencana usaha dan/atau kegiatan. AMDAL adalah kajian mengenai dampak besar dan penting untuk pengambilan keputusan suatu usaha dan/atau kegiatan yang direncanakan pada lingkungan hidup yang diperlukan bagi proses pengambilan keputusan tentang penyelenggaraan usaha dan/atau kegiatan . Agar pelaksanaan AMDAL berjalan efektif dan dapat mencapai sasaran yang diharapkan, pengawasannya dikaitkan dengan mekanisme perijinan. Peraturan pemerintah tentang AMDAL secara jelas menegaskan bahwa AMDAL adalah salah satu syarat perijinan, dimana para pengambil keputusan wajib mempertimbangkan hasil studi AMDAL sebelum memberikan ijin usaha/kegiatan. AMDAL digunakan untuk mengambil keputusan tentang penyelenggaraan/pemberian ijin usaha dan/atau kegiatan.
Dokumen AMDAL terdiri dari :
Dokumen Kerangka Acuan Analisis Dampak Lingkungan Hidup (KA-ANDAL)
Dokumen Analisis Dampak Lingkungan Hidup (ANDAL)
Dokumen Rencana Pengelolaan Lingkungan Hidup (RKL)
Dokumen Rencana Pemantauan Lingkungan Hidup (RPL)
Tiga dokumen (ANDAL, RKL dan RPL) diajukan bersama-sama untuk dinilai oleh Komisi Penilai AMDAL. Hasil penilaian inilah yang menentukan apakah rencana usaha dan/atau kegiatan tersebut layak secara lingkungan atau tidak dan apakah perlu direkomendasikan untuk diberi ijin atau tidak.
A.1) Kegunaan Amdal
Bahan bagi perencanaan pembangunan wilayah
Membantu proses pengambilan keputusan tentang kelayakan lingkungan hidup dari rencana usaha dan/atau kegiatan
Memberi masukan untuk penyusunan disain rinci teknis dari rencana usaha dan/atau kegiatan
Memberi masukan untuk penyusunan rencana pengelolaan dan pemantauan lingkungan hidup
Memberi informasi bagi masyarakat atas dampak yang ditimbulkan dari suatu rencana usaha dan atau kegiatan
A.2) Prosedur AMDAL
Prosedur AMDAL terdiri dari :
a) Proses penapisan (screening) wajib AMDAL
Proses penapisan atau kerap juga disebut proses seleksi kegiatan wajib AMDAL, yaitu menentukan apakah suatu rencana kegiatan wajib menyusun AMDAL atau tidak.
b) Proses pengumuman dan konsultasi masyarakat
Proses pengumuman dan konsultasi masyarakat. Berdasarkan Keputusan Kepala BAPEDAL Nomor 08/2000, pemrakarsa wajib mengumumkan rencana kegiatannya selama waktu yang ditentukan dalam peraturan tersebut, menanggapi masukan yang diberikan, dan kemudian melakukan konsultasi kepada masyarakat terlebih dulu sebelum menyusun KA-ANDAL.
c) Penyusunan dan penilaian KA-ANDAL (scoping)
Proses penyusunan KA-ANDAL. Penyusunan KA-ANDAL adalah proses untuk menentukan lingkup permasalahan yang akan dikaji dalam studi ANDAL (proses pelingkupan).
d) Penyusunan dan penilaian ANDAL, RKL, dan RPL
Proses penilaian KA-ANDAL. Setelah selesai disusun, pemrakarsa mengajukan dokumen KA-ANDAL kepada Komisi Penilai AMDAL untuk dinilai. Berdasarkan peraturan, lama waktu maksimal untuk penilaian KA-ANDAL adalah 75 hari di luar waktu yang dibutuhkan oleh penyusun untuk memperbaiki/menyempurnakan kembali dokumennya.
Dokumen AMDAL harus disusun oleh pemrakarsa suatu rencana usaha dan/atau kegiatan.
Dalam penyusunan studi AMDAL, pemrakarsa dapat meminta jasa konsultan untuk menyusunkan dokumen AMDAL. Penyusun dokumen AMDAL harus telah memiliki sertifikat Penyusun AMDAL dan ahli di bidangnya.
A.3) Pihak yang terlibat dalam proses AMDAL
Pihak-pihak yang terlibat dalam proses AMDAL adalah Komisi Penilai AMDAL, pemrakarsa, dan masyarakat yang berkepentingan.
Komisi Penilai AMDAL adalah komisi yang bertugas menilai dokumen AMDAL. Di tingkat pusat berkedudukan di Kementerian Lingkungan Hidup, di tingkat Propinsi berkedudukan di Bapedalda/lnstansi pengelola lingkungan hidup Propinsi, dan di tingkat Kabupaten/Kota berkedudukan di Bapedalda/lnstansi pengelola lingkungan hidup Kabupaten/Kota. Unsur pemerintah lainnya yang berkepentingan dan warga masyarakat yang terkena dampak diusahakan terwakili di dalam Komisi Penilai ini. Tata kerja dan komposisi keanggotaan Komisi Penilai AMDAL ini diatur dalam Keputusan Menteri Negara Lingkungan Hidup, sementara anggota-anggota Komisi Penilai AMDAL di propinsi dan kabupaten/kota ditetapkan oleh Gubernur dan Bupati/Walikota.
Pemrakarsa adalah orang atau badan hukum yang bertanggungjawab atas suatu rencana usaha dan/atau kegiatan yang akan dilaksanakan.
Masyarakat yang berkepentingan adalah masyarakat yang terpengaruh atas segala bentuk keputusan dalam proses AMDAL berdasarkan alasan-alasan antara lain sebagai berikut: kedekatan jarak tinggal dengan rencana usaha dan/atau kegiatan, faktor pengaruh ekonomi, faktor pengaruh sosial budaya, perhatian pada lingkungan hidup, dan/atau faktor pengaruh nilai-nilai atau norma yang dipercaya. Masyarakat berkepentingan dalam proses AMDAL dapat dibedakan menjadi masyarakat terkena dampak, dan masyarakat pemerhati.
A.4) UKL dan UPL
Upaya Pengelolaan Lingkungan Hidup (UKL) dan Upaya Pemantauan Lingkungan Hidup (UPL) adalah upaya yang dilakukan dalam pengelolaan dan pemantauan lingkungan hidup oleh penanggung jawab dan atau kegiatan yang tidak wajib melakukan AMDAL.
Kegiatan yang tidak wajib menyusun AMDAL tetap harus melaksanakan upaya pengelolaan lingkungan dan upaya pemantauan lingkungan.
Kewajiban UKL-UPL diberlakukan bagi kegiatan yang tidak diwajibkan menyusun AMDAL dan dampak kegiatan mudah dikelola dengan teknologi yang tersedia.
UKL-UPL merupakan perangkat pengelolaan lingkungan hidup untuk pengambilan keputusan dan dasar untuk menerbitkan ijin melakukan usaha dan atau kegiatan.
Proses dan prosedur UKL-UPL tidak dilakukan seperti AMDAL tetapi dengan menggunakan formulir isian yang berisi :
Identitas pemrakarsa
Rencana Usaha dan/atau kegiatan
Dampak Lingkungan yang akan terjadi
Program pengelolaan dan pemantauan lingkungan hidup
Tanda tangan dan cap
Formulir Isian diajukan pemrakarsa kegiatan kepada :
Instansi yang bertanggungjawab di bidang pengelolaan lingkungan hidup Kabupaten/Kota untuk kegiatan yang berlokasi pada satu wilayah kabupaten/kota
Instansi yang bertanggungjawab di bidang pengelolaan lingkungan hidup Propinsi untuk kegiatan yang berlokasi lebih dari satu Kabupaten/Kota
Instansi yang bertanggungjawab di bidang pengelolaan lingkungan hidup dan pengendalian dampak lingkungan untuk kegiatan yang berlokasi lebih dari satu propinsi atau lintas batas negara
A.5) Kaitan AMDAL dengan dokumen/kajian lingkungan lainnya
a) AMDAL-UKL/UPL
Rencana kegiatan yang sudah ditetapkan wajib menyusun AMDAL tidak lagi diwajibkan menyusun UKL-UPL. UKL-UPL dikenakan bagi kegiatan yang telah diketahui teknologi dalam pengelolaan limbahnya.
b) AMDAL dan Audit Lingkungan Hidup Wajib
Bagi kegiatan yang telah berjalan dan belum memiliki dokumen pengelolaan lingkungan hidup (RKL-RPL) sehingga dalam operasionalnya menyalahi peraturan perundangan di bidang lingkungan hidup, maka kegiatan tersebut tidak bisa dikenakan kewajiban AMDAL, untuk kasus seperti ini kegiatan tersebut dikenakan Audit Lingkungan Hidup Wajib sesuai Keputusan Menteri Lingkungan Hidup Nomor 30 tahun 2001 tentang Pedoman Pelaksanaan Audit Lingkungan yang Diwajibkan.
Audit Lingkungan Wajib merupakan dokumen lingkungan yang sifatnya spesifik, dimana kewajiban yang satu secara otomatis menghapuskan kewajiban lainnya kecuali terdapat kondisi-kondisi khusus yang aturan dan kebijakannya ditetapkan oleh Menteri Negara Lingkungan Hidup.
Kegiatan dan/atau usaha yang sudah berjalan yang kemudian diwajibkan menyusun Audit Lingkungan tidak membutuhkan AMDAL baru.
Kegiatan yang telah memiliki AMDAL dan dalam operasionalnya menghendaki untuk meningkatkan ketaatan dalam pengelolaan lingkungan hidup dapat melakukan audit lingkungan secara sukarela yang merupakan alat pengelolaan dan pemantauan yang bersifat internal.
Penerapan perangkat pengelolaan lingkungan sukarela bagi kegiatan-kegiatan yang wajib AMDAL tidak secara otomatis membebaskan pemrakarsa dari kewajiban penyusunan dokumen AMDAL. Walau demikian dokumen-dokumen sukarela ini sangat didorong untuk disusun oleh pemrakarsa karena sifatnya akan sangat membantu efektifitas pelaksanaan pengelolaan lingkungan sekaligus dapat "memperbaiki" ketidaksempurnaan yang ada dalam dokumen AMDAL.
Dokumen lingkungan yang bersifat sukarela ini sangat bermacam-macam dan sangat berguna bagi pemrakarsa, termasuk dalam melancarkan hubungan perdagangan dengan luar negeri. Dokumen-dokumen tersebut antara lain adalah Audit Lingkungan Sukarela, dokumen-dokumen yang diatur dalam ISO 14000, dokumen-dokumen yang dipromosikan penyusunannya oleh asosiasi-asosiasi industri/bisnis, dan lainnya. Marhaban Ya Ramadhan December 22, 2011 New Google SEO Bandung, Indonesia
Track Pt Wahana Shipments
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OCEAN BILL OF LADING
BILL OF LADING NO.
YMLUW420010600
SHIPPER
PT. WAHANA GRAHAMAKMUR
JL. DESA LAE MUNGKUR KEL. SIDIANGKAT KABU
JL. DESA LAE MUNGKUR KEL. SIDIANGKAT KABU
CONSIGNEE
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NOTIFY PARTY
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00167
VESSEL NAME
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ARRIVAL DATE
2009-02-07
PORT OF LOADING
SINGAPORE
PORT OF DISCHARGE
TACOMA, WASHINGTON
DECLARATION OF GOODS
ANHYDROUS ETHANOL MADE FROM SUGARCANE OR ITS MOLASSES
PARTICULARS (1)
| CONTAINER NO. | QTY. | MARKS (2) | CARGO WEIGHT | COUNTRY OF ORIGIN |
| NC | 275 BG | N/A | 16748 KG | TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO |
(NOTES)
(1) As declared by Shipper and not acknowledge by Carrier
(2) Said to contain
SIGNED BY/ON BEHALF OF CARRIER 3
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Memahami sistem ekonomi Islam secara utuh dan komprehensif, selain memerlukan pemahaman tentang Islam juga memerlukan pemahaman yang memadai tentang pengetahuan ekonomi umum mutakhir. Keterbatasan dalam pemahaman Islam akan berakibat pada tidak dipahaminya sistem ekonomi Islam secara utuh dan menyeluruh, mulai dari aspek fundamental ideologis sampai pemahaman konsep serta aplikasi praktis. Akibatnya pemahaman yang muncul, hanya menganggap bahwa sistem ekonomi Islam tidak berbeda dengan sistem ekonomi umum yang selama ini ada hanya minus sistem ribawi ditambah dengan zis (zakat, infak, sedekah) juga disertai adanya prinsip-prinsip akhlak yang diperlukan dalam kegiatan ekonomi.
Sebaliknya, keterbatasan dalam pemahaman tentang ekonomi umum mutakhir (kapitalis dan sosialis) akan berakibat pada anggapan bahwa sistem ekonomi Islam tidak memiliki konsep operasional, namun hanya memiliki konsep-konsep teoritis dan moral seperti yang terdapat pada hukum-hukum fikih tentang muamalah, seperti perdagangan, sewa-menyewa, simpan-pinjam dan lain-lain.
Dengan kata lain sistem ekonomi Islam hanya berada pada tatanan konsep teoritis namun tidak memiliki konsep operasional praktis seperti halnya sistem ekonomi lainnya. Dengan demikian tidak lagi ada anggapan bahwa sistem ekonomi Islam tidak memiliki landasan filosofis, politis maupun strategis.
Ada perbedaan paradigma yang mendasar antara ekonomi Islam dan ekonomi konvensional. Ekonomi konvensional melihat ilmu sebagai sesuatu yang sekuler sehingga menjadi bebas nilai sedangkan ekonomi Islam dibangun atas prinsip-prinsip religius.
Dalam tataran paradigma seperti ini, ekonom-ekonom muslim tidak menghadapi masalah perbedaan pendapat yang berarti. Namun ketika mereka diminta untuk menjelaskan apa dan bagaimanakah konsep Ekonomi Islam itu, mulai muncullah perbedaan (Karim: 2001). Dalam pemikiran ekonomi-ekonomi muslim kontemporer paling tidak ada dua mazhab besar, yaitu: Mazhab Baqir as-Sadr dan Mazhab Mainstream.
Mazhab Baqir as-Sadr dipelopori oleh Baqir as-Sadr dengan bukunya yang fenomenal: Iqtishadunna (ekonomi kita). Mazhab ini berpendapat bahwa ilmu ekonomi (economics) tidak pernah bisa sejalan dengan Islam. Ekonomi tetap ekonomi, dan Islam tetap Islam. Keduanya tidak akan pernah dapat disatukan, karena keduanya berasal dari filosofi yang saling kontradiktif. Yang satu anti-Islam, yang lainnya Islam.
Baqir as-Sadr menolak prinsip sumber daya yang terbatas dan keinginan manusia yang tidak terbatas. Mereka menolak semua semua teori ilmu ekonomi konvensional dan menyusun teori baru dari Al-Quran dan As-Sunnah.
Madzab Mainstraim berbeda pendapat dengan madzab baqir as-Sadr. Mereka mengakui adanya keterbatasan Sumber daya, sedangkan keinginan yang tidak terbatas adalah hal yang alamiah. Sehingga pandangannya terhadap masalah ekonomi tidak ada bedanya dengan ekonomi konvensional, perbedaannya hanya pada cara menyelesaikan masalah.
PERBEDAAN SISTEM EKONOMI ISLAM DENGAN SISTEM EKONOMI LAINNYA
A. Problematika Ekonomi dan Solusinya
Terdapat perbedaan penting antara sistem ekonomi Islam dengan sistem ekonomi lainnya, khususnya Kapitalis dalam memandang apa sesungguhnya yang menjadi permasalahan ekonomi manusia. Menurut sistem ekonomi kapitalis, permasalahan ekonomi yang sesungguhnya adalah kelangkaan (scarcity) barang dan jasa. Hal ini karena setiap manusia mempunyai kebutuhan yang beranekaragam dan jumlahnya tidak terbatas sementara sarana pemuas (barang dan jasa) yang digunakan untuk memenuhi kebutuhan manusia terbatas. Sebagai catatan yang dimaksud kebutuhan di sini mencakup kebutuhan (need) dan keinginan (want), sebab menurut pandangan ini pengertian antara kebutuhan (need) dan keinginan (want) adalah dua hal yang sama, yakni kebutuhan itu sendiri. Setiap kebutuhan yang ada pada diri manusia tersebut menuntut untuk dipenuhi oleh alat-alat dan sarana-sarana pemuas kebutuhan yang jumlahnya terbatas. Oleh karena di satu sisi kebutuhan manusia jumlahnya tidak terbatas sementara alat dan sarana yang digunakan untuk memenuhinya terbatas, maka muncullah konsep kelangkaan.
Berbeda dengan sistem ekonomi kapitalis, maka sistem ekonomi Islam menetapkan bahwa problematika ekonomi yang utama adalah masalah rusaknya distribusi kekayaan di tengah masyarakat. Menurut Islam, pandangan sistem ekonomi kapitalis yang menyamakan antara pengertian kebutuhan (need) dengan keinginan (want) adalah tidak tepat dan tidak sesuai dengan fakta. Keinginan (want) manusia memang tidak terbatas dan cenderung untuk terus bertambah dari waktu ke waktu. Sementara itu, kebutuhan manusia ada kebutuhan yang sifatnya merupakan kebutuhan pokok (al hajat al asasiyah) dan ada kebutuhan yang sifatnya pelengkap (al hajat al kamaliyat) yakni berupa kebutuhan sekunder dan tersier. Kebutuhan pokok manusia berupa pangan, sandang dan papan dalam kenyataannya adalah terbatas. Setiap orang yang telah kenyang makan makanan tertentu maka pada saat itu sebenamya kebutuhannya telah terpenuhi dan dia tidak menuntut untuk makan makanan lainnya.
B. Konsep Kepemilikan Harta kekayaan.
Perbedaan lainnya antara sistem ekonomi Islam dengan sistem ekonomi lainnya adalah dalam hal konsep kepemilikan harta. Pandangan tentang kepemilikan harta berbeda antara sistem ekonomi Sosialis dengan sistem ekonomi Kapitalis serta berbeda juga dengan sistem ekonomi Islam. Kepemilikan harta (barang dan jasa) dalam Sistem Sosialis dibatasi dari segi jumlah (kuantitas), namun dibebaskan dari segi cara (kualitas) memperoleh harta yang dimiliki. Artinya cara memperolehnya dibebaskan dengan cara apapun yang yang dapat dilakukan. Sedangkan menurut pandangan Sistem Ekonomi Kapitalis jumlah (kuantitas) kepemilikan harta individu berikut cara memperolehnya (kualitas) tidak dibatasi, yakni dibolehkan dengan cara apapun selama tidak mengganggu kebebasan orang lain. Sedangkan menurut sistem ekonomi Islam kepemilikan harta dari segi jumlah (kuantitas) tidak dibatasi namun dibatasi dengan cara-cara tertentu (kualitas) dalam memperoleh harta (ada aturan halal dan haram).
C. Konsep Pengelolaan Kepemilikan Harta kekayaan
Perbedaan lainnya antara sistem ekonomi Islam dengan sistem ekonomi lainnya adalah dalam hal konsep pengelolaan kepemilikan harta, baik dari segi nafkah maupun upaya pengembangan kepemilikan. Menurut sistem ekonomi kapitalis dan sosialis, harta yang telah dimiliki dapat dipergunakan (konsumsi) ataupun di kembangkan (investasi) secara bebas tanpa memperhatikan aspek halal dan haram serta bahayanya bagi masyarakat. Sebagai contoh, membeli dan mengkonsumsi minuman keras (khamr) adalah sesuatu yang dibolehkan, bahkan upaya pembuatannya dalam bentuk pendirian pabrik-pabrik minuman keras dilegalkan dan tidak dilarang.
Sedangkan menurut Islam harta yang telah dimiliki, pemanfaatan (konsumsi) maupun pengembangannya (investasi) wajib terikat dengan ketentuan halal dan haram. Dengan demikian maka membeli, mengkonsumsi barang-barang yang haram adalah tidak diperkenankan (dilarang). Termasuk juga upaya investasi berupa pendirian pabrik barang-barang haram juga dilarang. Karena itulah memproduksi, menjual, membeli dan mengkonsumsi minuman keras adalah sesuatu yang dilarang dalam sistem ekonomi Islam.
D. Konsep Distribusi Harta kekayaan di Tengah Masyarakat.
Perbedaan lainnya antara sistem ekonomi Islam dengan sistem ekonomi lainnya adalah dalam hal konsep distribusi kekayaan di tengah masyarakat. Menurut sistem ekonomi sosialis, distribusi kekayaan di tengah masyarakat dilakukan oleh negara secara mutlak. Negara akan membagikan harta kekayaan kepada individu rakyat dengan sama rata, tanpa memperhatikan lagi kedudukan dan status sosial mereka. Akibatnya adalah meskipun seluruh anggota masyarakat memperoleh harta yang sama, namun penghargaan yang adil terhadap jerih payah setiap orang menjadi tidak ada.
Berbeda juga dengan sistem ekonomi kapitalis yang lebih mengandalkan pada mekanisme pasar (harga) dan menolak sejauh mungkin peranan negara secara langsung dalam mendistribusikan harta di tengah masyarakat. Menurut mereka mekanisme harga (pasar) dengan invisible hands-nya akan secara otomatis membuat distribusi kekayaan di tengah masyarakat. Karena itulah maka sistem ekonomi kapitalis akan mengabaikan setiap orang yang tidak mampu mengikuti mekanisme pasar dengan baik. Seolah-olah menurut mereka hanya orang-orang yang mampu mengikuti makanisme pasar artinya mampu mengikuti persaingan pasarlah yang layak hidup. Sedangkan orang-orang lemah, jompo, cacat tidaklah layak untuk hidup, sebab hanya menjadi beban masyarakat.
Sedangkan sistem ekonomi Islam, dalam hal distribusi kekayaan di tengah masyarakat, selain mengandalkan mekanisme ekonomi yang wajar juga mengandalkan mekanisme non ekonomi. Mekanisme distribusi yang ada dalam sistem ekonomi Islam secara garis besar dapat dikelompokkan menjadi dua kelompok mekanisme : Mekanisme ekonomi dan mekanisme non-ekonomi
Oleh: Marhaban Ya Ramadhan December 18, 2011 New Google SEO Bandung, Indonesia
Ikhwanul Muslimin (Arab:الاخوان المسلمون al-ikhwān al-muslimūn) sering hanya disebut (Arab الإخوان Al-Ikhwan) adalah salah satu jamaah dari umat Islam, mengajak dan menuntut ditegakkannya syariat Allah, hidup di bawah naungan Islam, seperti yang diturunkan Allah kepada Rasulullah saw, dan diserukan oleh para Salafus Shalih, bekerja dengannya dan untuknya, keyakinan yang bersih menghujam dalam sanubari, pemahaman yang benar yang merasuk dalam akal dan fikrah, syariah yang mengatur al-jawarih (anggota tubuh), perilaku dan politik Di kemudian hari, gerakan Ikhwanul Muslimin tersebar ke seluruh dunia Jamaah Ikhwanul Muslimin berdiri di kota Ismailiyah, Mesir pada Maret 1928 dengan pendiri Hassan al-Banna, bersama keenam tokoh lainnya, yaitu Hafiz Abdul Hamid, Ahmad al-Khusairi, Fuad Ibrahim, Abdurrahman Hasbullah, Ismail Izz dan Zaki al-Maghribi. Ikhwanul Muslimin pada saat itu dipimpin oleh Hassan al-Banna. Pada tahun 1930, Anggaran Dasar Ikhwanul Muslimin dibuat dan disahkan pada Rapat Umum Ikhwanul Muslimin pada 24 September1930[. Pada tahun 1932, struktur administrasi Ikhwanul Muslimin disusun dan pada tahun itu pula, Ikhwanul Muslimin membuka cabang di Suez, Abu Soweir dan al-Mahmoudiya. Pada tahun 1933, Ikhwanul Muslimin menerbitkan majalah mingguan yang dipimpin oleh Muhibuddin Khatib.
Perkembangan 1930-1948
Kemudian pada tahun 1934, Ikhwanul Muslimin membentuk divisi Persaudaraan Muslimah. Divisi ini ditujukan untuk para wanita yang ingin bergabung ke Ikhwanul Muslimin. Walaupun begitu, pada tahun 1941 gerakan Ikhwanul Muslimin masih beranggotakan 100 orang, hasil seleksi dari Hassan al-Banna. Pada tahun 1948, Ikhwanul Muslimin turut serta dalam perang melawan Israel di Palestina. Saat organisasi ini sedang berkembang pesat, Ikhwanul Muslimin justru dibekukan oleh Muhammad Fahmi Naqrasyi, Perdana Menteri Mesir tahun 1948. Berita penculikan Naqrasyi di media massa tak lama setelah pembekuan Ikhwanul Muslimin membuat semua orang curiga pada gerakan Ikhwanul Muslimin.
Perkembangan 1950-1970
Secara misterius, pendiri Ikhwanul Muslimin, Hassan al-Banna meninggal dunia karena dibunuh pada 12 Februari 1949. Kemudian, tahun 1950, pemerintah Mesir merehabilitasi organisasi Ikhwanul Muslimin. Pada saat itu, parlemen Mesir dipimpin oleh Mustafa an-Nuhas Pasha. Parlemen Mesir menganggap bahwa pembekuan Ikhwanul Muslimin tidak sah dan inkonstitusional. Ikhwanul Muslimin pada tahun 1950 dipimpin oleh Hasan al-Hudhaibi. Kemudian, tanggal 23 Juli 1952, Mesir dibawah pimpinan Muhammad Najib bekerjasama dengan Ikhwanul Muslimin dalam rencana menggulingkan kekuasaan monarki Raja Faruk pada Revolusi Juli. Tapi, Ikhwanul Muslimin menolak rencana ini, dikarenakan tujuan Revolusi Juli adalah untuk membentuk Republik Mesir yang dikuasai oleh militer sepenuhnya, dan tidak berpihak pada rakyat. Karena hal ini, Jamal Abdul Nasir menganggap gerakan Ikhwanul Muslimin menolak mandat revolusi. Sejak saat ini, Ikhwanul Muslimin kembali dibenci oleh pemerintah.
1970-sekarang
Ketika Anwar Sadat mulai berkuasa, anggota Ikhwanul Muslimin yang dipenjara mulai dilepaskan. Menggantikan Hudhaibi yang telah meninggal pada tahun 1973, Umar Tilmisani memimpin organisasi Ikhwanul Muslimin. Umar Tilmisani menempuh jalan moderat dengan tidak bermusuhan dengan penguasa. Rezim Hosni Mubarak saat ini juga menekan Ikhwanul Muslimin, dimana Ikhwanul Muslimin menduduki posisi sebagai oposisi di Parlemen Mesir.
Pemikiran
Ikhwanul Muslimin merupakan sebuah organisasi Islam berlandaskan ajaran Islam. Bisa dilihat dari pemikiran utama Ikhwanul Muslimin berikut.Ia merupakan salah satu jamaah dari beberapa jamaah yang ada pada umat Islam, yang memandang bahwa Islam adalah dien yang universal dan menyeluruh, bukan hanya sekedar agama yang mengurusi ibadah ritual (salat, puasa, haji, zakat, dll) saja. Tujuan Ikhwanul Muslimin adalah mewujudkan terbentuknya sosok individu muslim, rumah tangga Islami, bangsa yang Islami, pemerintahan yang Islami, negara yang dipimpin oleh negara-negara Islam, menyatukan perpecahan kaum muslimin dan negara mereka yang terampas, kemudian membawa bendera jihad dan da’wah kepada Allah sehingga dunia mendapatkan ketentraman dengan ajaran-ajaran Islam Namun sayang sekali ajaran shufi kental sekali memengaruhi organisasi iniIkhwanul Muslimin menolak segala bentuk penjajahan dan monarki yang pro-Barat.
Dalam perpolitikan di berbagai negara, Ikhwanul Muslimin ikut serta dalam proses demokrasi sebagai sarana perjuangannya, sebagaimana kelompok-kelompok lain yang mengakui demokrasi. Contoh utamanya adalah Ikhwanul Muslimin di Mesir yang mengikuti proses pemilu di negara tersebut
Al-Ikhwan Berbeda & Menolak Al-Qaeda
Di berbagai media khususnya media negara-negara Barat, Ikhwanul Muslimin sering dikait-kaitkan dengan Al-Qaeda. Pada faktanya, Ikhwanul Muslimin berbeda jauh dengan Al-Qaeda. Ideologi, sarana, dan aksi yang dilakukan oleh Al-Qaeda secara tegas ditolak oleh pimpinan Ikhwanul Muslimin. Ikhwanul Muslimin lebih mendukung ide perubahan dan reformasi melalui jalan damai dan dialog yang konstruktif yang bersandarkan pada al-hujjah (alasan), al-mantiq (logika), al-bayyinah (jelas), dan ad-dalil (dalil. Kekerasan atau radikalisme bukan jalan perjuangan Ikhwanul Muslimin, kecuali jika negara tempat Ikhwanul Muslimin berada, terancam penjajahan dari bangsa lain. Inipun, kekerasan di sini sebenarnya lebih tepat disebut sebagai perlawanan, bukan radikalisme atau kekerasan sebagaimana yang dilakukan oleh kelompok teroris. Sebagai contoh adalah Hamas yang merupakan perpanjangan tangan Ikhwanul Muslimin di Palestina. Syekh Ahmad Yassin pendiri Hamas adalah tokoh Ikhwanul Muslimin
Mengutuk Terorisme
Al-Ikwan Al-Muslimun mengutuk segala bentuk kriminalitas yang disebut dengan terorisme di seluruh belahan bumi di dunia Arab dan Islam, sebagaimana di belahan negara lainnya di dunia, seperti yang telah terjadi di New York dan Washington DC pada Serangan 11 September 2001. Begitu juga Al-Ikhwan sangan mengecam peristiwa anarkisme yang terjadi di Riyadh, Bali, Madrid dan lainnya Dengan sangat jelas Al-Ikhwan mengumumkan bahwa tindakan-tindakan kriminalitas seperti itu sama sekali tidak didukung oleh Syariat, Agama, dan Undang-undang manapun.
Al-Ikhwan Bukan Wahabi
Di berbagai media, Ikhwanul Muslimin juga sering dikait-kaitkan dengan gerakan Wahabi. Pada faktanya, antara Al-Ikhwan dengan Wahabi berbeda jauh. Pengkait-kaitan Al-Ikhwan dengan Wahabi pada dasarnya disebabkan adanya kesamaan nama. Di dalam sejarah Wahabi di Arab Saudi, mereka memang pernah memiliki pasukan tempur yang bernama Al-Ikhwan, nama yang sama persis dengan Al-Ikhwan yang di Mesir. Seorang penulis bernama Robert Lacey dalam catatan kaki bukunya yang berjudul "Kerajaan Pertrodolar Saudi Arabia" di halaman 180 sudah mewanti-wanti bahwa kelompok Al-Ikhwan dari Nejd ini tidak ada kaitannya dan tak boleh dicampuradukkan dengan Al-Ikhwan Al-Muslimun yang dibentuk di Mesir di tahun 1930-an dan masih aktif sampai saat ini. Secara pemikiran pun antara Ikhwanul Muslimin dengan Wahabi saling bertolak belakang. Ikhwanul Muslimin masuk ke dalam wilayah politik dalam perjuangannya (bahkan membentuk partai politik), sedangkan Wahabi sebaliknya, yaitu antipati terhadap partai politik.
Kredo
Ikhwanul Muslimin memiliki kredo berupa:
1. Allah tujuan kami (Allahu ghayatuna)
2. Rasulullah teladan kami (Ar-Rasul qudwatuna)
3. Al-Qur'an landasan hukum kami (Al-Quran dusturuna)
4. Jihad jalan kami (Al-Jihad sabiluna)
5. Mati syahid di jalan Allah cita-cita kami yang tertinggi (Syahid fiisabilillah asma amanina)
Walaupun begitu, Ikhwanul Muslimin tetap mengikuti perkembangan teknologi dan tidak meninggalkannya. Sebagai organisasi Islam moderat, Ikhwanul Muslimin diterima oleh segala lapisan dan pergerakan. Ikhwanul Muslimin menekankan adaptasi Islam terhadap era globalisasi. Pemikiran dan pergerakan Ikhwanul Muslimin mencakup delapan aspek yang mencerminkan luasnya cakupan Islam sebagai ideologi yang mereka anut, yaitu Dakwah salafiyah (dakwah salaf), Thariqah sunniyah (jalan sunnah), Hakikat shufiyah (hakikat sufi), Hai'ah siyasiyah (lembaga politik), Jama'ah riyadhiyah (kelompok olahraga), Rabithah 'ilmiyah tsaqafiah (ikatan ilmiah berwawasan), Syirkah iqtishadiyah (perserikatan ekonomi), dan Fikrah ijtima'iyah (pemikiran sosial)
Pimpinan
Pimpinan Ikhwanul Muslimin disebut Mursyid 'Am atau Sekretaris Jenderal. Adapun tugas dari Mursyid 'Am adalah untuk mengatur organisasi Ikhwanul Muslimin di seluruh dunia. Berikut ini adalah daftar Mursyid 'Am yang pernah memimpin Ikhwanul Muslimin:
• Hassan al-Banna (حسن البنا) (1928 - 1949)
• Hassan al-Hudhaibi (حسن الهضيبي) (1949 - 1972)
• Umar at-Tilmisani (عمر التلمساني) (1972 - 1986)
• Muhammad Hamid Abu Nasr (محمد حامد أبو النصر) (1986 - 1996)
• Mustafa Masyhur (مصطفى مشهور) (1996 - 2002)
• Ma'mun al-Hudhaibi [] (مأمون الهضيبي) (2002 - 2004)
• Muhammad Mahdi Akif (محمد المهدى عاكف) (2010 - 2004 -
• Muhammad Badie (2010 - )
Ikhwanul Muslimin di Indonesia
Syahrir, Nazir Pamoncak, MZ Hasan bertemu Hasan Al-Banna di Kantor Pusat Ikhwanul Muslimin untuk menyampaikan rasa terima kasih bangsa Indonesia atas sokongan Ikhwanul Muslimin yang kuat sekali pada kemerdekaan RI (Hassan, M.Z. 1980. Diplomasi Revolusi Indonesia di Luar Negeri. Bulan Bintang. Jakarta. Hal. 277)
Ikhwanul Muslimin masuk ke Indonesia melalui jamaah haji dan kaum pendatang Arab sekitar tahun 1930. Pada zaman kemerdekaan, Agus Salim pergi ke Mesir dan mencari dukungan kemerdekaan. Waktu itu, Agus Salim menyempatkan untuk bertemu kepada sejumlah delegasi Indonesia. Templat:Hassan, M.Z. 1980. Diplomasi Revolusi Indonesia di Luar Negeri. Bulan Bintang. Jakarta. Hal. 220
H. Agus Salim, Ketua Delegasi RI, bersama H. Rasyidi menyampaikan terima kasih bangsa Indonesia kepada Syaikh Hasan Al-Banna, Mursyid Am Al-Ikhwan Al-Muslimun, yang kuat sekali menyokong perjuangan kemerdekaan Indonesia. Sumber gambar:Hassan, M.Z. 1980. Diplomasi Revolusi Indonesia di Luar Negeri. Bulan Bintang. Jakarta. Hal. 220
Ikhwanul Muslimin memiliki peran penting dalam proses kemerdekaan Republik Indonesia. Atas desakan Ikhwanul Muslimin, negara Mesir menjadi negara pertama yang mengakui kemerdekaan Republik Indonesia, setelah dijajah oleh Belanda. Dengan demikian, lengkaplah syarat-syarat sebuah negara berdaulat bagi Republik Indonesia
Ikhwanul Muslimin kemudian semakin berkembang di Indonesia setelah Muhammad Natsir mendirikan partai yang memakai ajaran Ikhwanul Muslimin, yaitu Partai Masyumi
Partai Masyumi kemudian dibredel oleh Soekarno dan dilarang keberadaannya. Kemudian pada Pemilu tahun 1999 berdiri partai yang menggunakan nama Masyumi, yaitu Partai Masyumi Baru dan Partai Politik Islam Indonesia Masyumi (PPII Masyumi). Selain itu berdiri juga Partai Bulan Bintang (PBB) dan Partai Keadilan (PK) yang sebelumnya banyak dikenal dengan jamaah atau kelompok Tarbiyah. PBB mendeklarasikan partainya sebagai keluarga besar pendukung Masyumi[. Sedangkan menurut Yusuf Qaradhawi, Partai Keadilan (kini berganti nama menjadi Partai Keadilan Sejahtera atau PKS) merupakan perpanjangan tangan dari gerakan Ikhwanul Muslimin Mesir yang mewadahi komunitas terbaik kalangan muda intelektual yang sadar akan agama, negeri, dunia, dan zamannya. Namun tulisan ulama yang kini bermukim di Qatar itu belum pernah mendapat konfirmasi dari para pengurus DPP PKS [26]. Jika dilihat dari Piagam Deklarasi PKS dan AD/ART PKS PKS tidak pernah menyebutkan hubungannya dengan Ikhwanul Muslimin.
Selain partai-partai di atas, ada juga ormas Islam di Indonesia yang terinspirasi dari Ikhwanul Muslimin ini, paling tidak itu terlihat dari nama ormas tersebut. Ormas yang dimaksud, antara lain adalah Parmusi (Persaudaraan Muslimin Indonesia) yang berafiliasi ke PPP, dan Ikhwanul Muslimin Indonesia (IMI). Parmusi saat ini diketuai oleh Bachtiar Chamsyah. Sedangkan IMI yang dideklarasikan di Depok pada tahun 2001, diketuai oleh Habib Husein Al Habsyi
Lalu pada Pemilu tahun 2004, Partai Masyumi Baru dan PPII Masyumi tidak dapat mengikuti pemilu lagi karena tidak lolos electoral threshold. Partai Masyumi Baru bergabung dengan Partai Persatuan Pembangunan (PPP) PBB masih dapat terus mengikuti pemilu Sedangkan PK mengikuti Pemilu 2004 setelah berganti nama menjadi Partai Keadilan Sejahtera (PKS). Setelah pemilu 2004, PBB hampir tidak bisa mengikuti pemilu 2009 karena tidak lolos electoral threshold. Pada akhirnya PBB bisa mengikuti pemilu 2009 sebagaimana PKS dan PPP yang masih dapat terus mengikuti pemilu 2009 karena lolos electoral threshold.
Jadi secara umum, Ikhwanul Muslimin cukup banyak memberikan inspirasi pada organisasi-organisasi di Indonesia. Namun tidak jelas mana yang benar-benar berhubungan secara resmi dengan Ikhwanul Muslimin di Mesir. Jika diringkas, organisasi di Indonesia yang terinspirasi dari Ikhwanul Muslimin antara lain:
1. Partai Masyumi
2. Persaudaraan Muslimin Indonesia
3. Partai Masyumi Baru (1998)
4. Partai Politik Islam Indonesia Masyumi (1998)
5. Partai Bulan Bintang (1998)
6. Partai Keadilan (1998)
7. Ikhwanul Muslimin Indonesia (2001)
8. Partai Keadilan Sejahtera (2002) Marhaban Ya Ramadhan December 18, 2011 New Google SEO Bandung, Indonesia
